Hey guys,
For a while I've been meaning to do a bit of a historical write up and range report on a very interesting set of American Military surplus rifles and carbines in my collection from the 19th Century. I personally find the Western Frontier and "Old West" period of American history fascinating, and that deep interest in history, coupled with an ever growing enjoyment of collecting and shooting antique black powder firearms has seemingly collided. I have been fortunate to have had some help locating and acquiring a few firearms over the past few years which I have been slowly sourcing ammunition components for, and now recently, begun shooting and developing black powder loads for.
When it comes to "Milsurp" firearms, most of us typically conjure up images of Mosins, Mausers, Enfields, Garands and the like, furthered by Hollywood movies, stories passed down from Veterans and more recently, computer & video games. When we think of American milsurps, most of us focus on M1911s, M1 Garands, M1 Carbines, BARs, M1903 Springfields and Thompson SMGs. While these timeless classics certainly hold crucial places in American history, I wanted to focus a bit on some lesser known American firearms from the "Indian Wars" period of the 1860s - 1890s that were pivotal in the "settling" of the West and shaping American history.
My original US Military Antiques of the "Indian Wars" (from top to bottom)
US Model 1865 Spencer Carbine. "ESA" marked.
US Model 1866 Springfield "Trapdoor". "ESA" and "HSH" marked.
US Model 1863 Sharps Carbine. "DFC" marked.
While this period of American history is often portrayed in books and movies by "Cowboys and Indians", a heavily romanticized view of saloons, whisky drinking, six shooter slingin' cowboys and the US Cavalry fighting off masses of Native Americans in heroic last stands, there is much more fascinating information to examine, explore and learn. While these events and personas certainly did exist, it is equally important to look at the political, cultural, scientific, financial and technological elements of American expansionism in The West during the "Indian Wars" that is so important to modern day America. This period of history is violent, bloody, unjust and filled with many instances broken promises, hardship, famine and murder. It is also filled with tales of adventure & heroism and makes for a very fascinating time in history.
Original Frontier Firepower!
The "Indian Wars" refers to a series of armed conflicts and campaigns between the Governments of North America and Europe against various Native American & Indigenous peoples throughout the 18th, 19th and 20th century. For the purposes of this post and these particular firearms, I will be focusing on Post Civil War US Government expansion, conflict and military action during the mid 1860s to 1870s in the American West. During this time, conflict in the Dakotas, Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, Texas, Arizona and New Mexico came to define US Military operations and weapons development.
Map showing the both the large number of conflicts as well as the vast distances of the frontier
While I make reference to the "Indian Wars", I use the term "Indian" in the context that this was the term commonly used historically for the Native American & Indigenous people of many tribes and nations involved in the fighting during this time to include the Sioux, Cheyenne, Cherokee, Apache, Arapaho and Lakota (among others).
While I am certainly not an expert or a historian by any means (and don't pretend to be), I have done my best to articulate things as accurately as possible within the reading I have done. That being said, I welcome any and all discussion, corrections, arguments and points! I am certainly interested in learning as much as possible, be it about the historical notes and references or the firearms themselves! I have taken photographs and videos from a few locations online, and have done my best to source them properly. I have taken some words from other sites, and have done my best to reference them. I don't intend to claim anyone else's work or research as my own.
With that being said...
The year is late 1865...
The United States and it's Federal military is recovering from over four years of brutal Civil War that tore apart the nation and depleted the Army, leaving the US War Department short on finances and facing ever increasingly complex set of challenges on many fronts - including logistics and administration in the face of ever increasing westward expansion via desolate, remote outposts and growing conflict with Native Americans. President Lincoln had been assassinated several months prior during the spring by Confederate sympathizer and stage actor John Wilkes Booth, with now-President Andrew Johnson at the helm. President Johnson was facing the monumental task of attempting to reunify the nation with a series of reconstruction policies, all while facing massive financial cutbacks and overwhelming challenges such implementing the abolition of slavery, the formal ending of Confederate succession, dealing with the massive loss of life and infrastructure as well as expanding and forming alliances with various First Nations peoples.
US President Johnson would serve as president from 1865-1869.
During the Civil War, the United States military grew exponentially, to a size of approximately a million men at its height, and further suffered over 360,000 killed in action. Immediately following the Civil War, In 1866 the Army Reorganization Act provided for a regular army of approximately 54,000 men, a drastic reduction in strength. In addition to this change in strength, army duties shifted from what had been large scale combat in the Eastern United States to providing protection for settlers, railroad & construction workers, gold miners and industrialists moving westward. In addition to these duties, the US Army also had the task of continuing to establish a network of remote outposts and forts in secluded locations along the western frontier. Further, enemy combatants shifted from larger scale Confederate formations to an ever shifting series of loose alliances and conflicts with numerous Native American peoples, with combat during this time typically being characterized by smaller scale, low intensity irregular raids and attacks. With this shift in situation, mission, size, mandate, deployment and doctrine, came a need for a change in weapons development, employment and use.
The United States as seen in 1866
Lessons learned from combat experience during the Civil War unquestionably proved that muzzle loading muskets were obsolete by 1865, and that metallic cartridges were the way forward. Much more reliable, rugged and practical, metallic cartridges were also able to be stored and transported easier then paper cartridges and musket caps, an important factor on the American frontier. While metallic cartridges were fielded during the Civil War in firearms such as the Spencer Rifle & Carbine, the Burnside carbine and the 1860 Henry Rifle, paper cartridges certainly had numerical superiority during the war, being used in the various 1855, 1861 & 1863 Springfield, 1853 Enfield, and 1854 Lorenz muskets (among others). Paper cartridges and loose powder is much more susceptible to moisture, freezing, tearing and being rendered useless when compared to a single metallic cartridge with self contained primer, powder and projectile. Further to these advantages, it was clear that breech loading firearms were faster to load and fire, and were also easier to clean and maintain then their muzzle loading counterparts. It was for these reasons that the United States military and the National Armory at Springfield began developing and experimenting with various breech loading rifles and carbines in the 1860s.
This letter to the Honorable E.M. Stanton, Secretary of War dated December 5th, 1864 perfectly sums up the general consensus regarding breech loading weapons over their muzzle loading counterparts:
"Sir,
The experience of the war has shown that breech loading arms are greatly superior to muzzle loaders for infantry as well as cavalry, and that measures should be immediately taken to substitute a suitable breech loading musket in place of the rifle musket which is now manufactured at the National Armory and by private contractors for this department..."
Brigadier General A.B. Dyer
Chief of Ordnance"
Typical US Model 1863 Infantry Musket. 58 Calibre. Source: capnball.eu
Beginning in the mid 1860's, several models of muzzle loading firearms were experimented with for adaptation to breech loading, many by way of a manually operated hinge, gate, lever or "trap door". Many nations and militaries sought to arm themselves with the newest metallic cartridge breech loaders, but with the massive reduction in military expenditures and strength of the US Military following the Civil War, an economical solution had to be found. The National Armory at Springfield had produced a bulk of .58 Calibre muskets used by the Federal Army during the Civil War, and were quickly put to task developing and testing various breech loading firearms, as well as developing a standardized metallic cartridge. Various Sharps and Spencer systems (among others) were tested.
Civil war era metallic breech loader - US Model 1860 Spencer Carbine. Source Guns&ammo.
In 1865, Springfield Armory Master Armorer Erskine Allin (1809-1879) had succeeded in producing the first practical metalic breech loading conversion of the standard US Model 1863 Musket. The first "Model 1865" rifles were essentially completed by taking a standard issue Model 1863 musket, cutting away a section of the barrel toward the breech area, brazing on a hinged breech assembly with a firing pin and fitting an extractor mechanism for spent casings. The hammers were also "shaved" flat to strike the rear of the firing pin. There were other minor modifications, though these "First Model Allins" used most of the original musket parts and were chambered in a .58 Rimfire cartridge. The very first of the "Trapdoor" rifles.
Master Armorer Erskine Allin
US National Armory at Springfield. Primary manufacturer of US Military weapons from 1777 to its closing in 1968
Ian over at Forgotten Weapons did a fantastic video on these US Model 1865 rifles
Continual development and testing with metallic cartridges further resulted in the clear determination that centre fire cartridges were advantageous, and so it was determined that a reduction in calibre to .50, and a standardized powder charge of 70gr was to be adopted as the Standard ".50-70 Government" cartridge. Testing had showed that a .45 calibre projectile was superior ballistically, though General Grant decided that the .45-70 cartridge was too long for military service (This would obviously change later). This new .50-70 Government cartridge would fire a 450gr bullet and would be the used in both the infantry issue musket conversions as well as the cavalry issue carbines. Approximately 30,000 Model 1863 Sharps Carbines would be converted for the US Government to .50-70 Government during the 1867-1868 time period. These carbines saw extensive issue in the 1860s and early 1870s along the Model 1865 Spencer carbines. With the development of this new cartridge, and taking into account trials and testing, in 1866 a refined model of "Trapdoor" rifle was developed. The US Model 1866 "Trapdoor" rifle would still use most of the original US Model 1863 musket parts, though the breech block was strengthened, simplified and adapted for the new center fire .50-70 Government cartridge. These "Second Model Allin" 1866 Models typically retained their original .58 calibre musket barrels, but had a liner installed which bored them down to .50 calibre. The 1866 Rifles also retained their original musket sights, locks and stocks. Most of these rifles were manufactured in 1867, with a total production run of approximately 52,300 rifles.
My US Model 1866 "Trapdoor"
My two .50-70 Originals! US Infantry Model 1866 Rifle & US Cavalry 1863 Sharps Conversion. Both get shot.
My particular US Model 1866 "Trapdoor" rifle is a "typical" example and maintains its original musket stock, 1864 dated lock, sights, and musket barrel with a .50 calibre liner. This rifle is in very good condition, and has a clean, shiny bore. The "Trapdoor" locks up nice and tight, and the stock is nicely marked with both the "ESA" and "HSH" cartouches (Erskine S Allin and Henry S Hill). This rifle is a very nice example of a US Military Model 1866 rifle and I consider myself very fortunate to be its caretaker.
"Trapdoor" and breech area of my 1866 Rifle.
Left side of the breech area of my 1866 Rifle.
Original musket stock - the "ESA" and "HSH" marking are faint - but there.
United States!
These rifles were generally viewed favorably, but were not without their shortcomings. Reports from the army in the field notably made reference to the ramrods/cleaning rods becoming dislodged from recoil, the rifles shooting high, heavy trigger pulls causing accuracy issues as well as soft screw heads. Having personally shot my US 1866 rifle several times now, I can attest that my ramrod likes to slowly work its way out after about 10 rounds. My rifle also shoots about 6" high at 100m and has a heavy trigger pull. In the photo's you'll also notice on of my screws is a bit worn - sure seems like this rifle exhibits traits that troops complained about!
These rifles saw considerable issue to US Army units throughout the United States, notably to units stationed along the Western Frontier. While the rifle certainly had its teething issues, the power and firepower advantage that came from having a breech loading, metallic cartridge rifle became readily apparent during "Red Clouds War" of 1866-1868. "Red Clouds War" was a series of armed conflicts and engagements between the United States Army and Lakota Sioux, Northern Cheyenne and Northern Arapaho tribes in the Wyoming and Montana Territories along the Bozeman Trail. This war would be fought among the forests, plains, mountains and rivers of the Monday and Wyoming Territories.
The Bozeman Trail
With the discovery of gold in western Montana during the early 1860s, hundreds of miners and prespectors made their way into the region. While there were a few different trails and roads linking this area of Montana to other parts of the United States, in 1863 entrepreneur John Bozemen and John Jacobs blazed a trail from the goldfields to the Platte Road west of Fort Laramie. This new trail crossed the Yellowstone and Bighorn Rivers in Montana, ran south along the east side of the Bighorn Mountains and also crossed the Tongue and Powder rivers, overall reducing the distance required by other routes by approximately 400 miles.
Montana. While beautiful - frontier life for a soldier was full of boredom, hard labour, uncertainly and discomfort.
A land of beauty & opportunity. A land of danger & turmoil.
Montana, Wyoming & Dakota Areas - 1866 Map
Soon after the Bozeman trail was established, travelers soon found themselves under attack by hostile groups of Native Americans. Under the terms of the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1851, the U.S. government had set aside the Powder River country, through which the Bozeman Trail ran, as Oglala and Brulé Sioux, Arapaho, and Cheyenne hunting land. Thus, these tribes objected to the intruders and attempted to turn back their wagons and herds. In 1865, responding to the demands of the settlers for protection, the U.S. Army sent a column under General Patrick E. Connor to the region. Connor constructed a stockade, Fort Reno, Wyoming 169 miles north of Fort Laramie at the forks of the Powder River, but his attempt to subdue the tribes failed (Source 2).
Fort Reno
In June 1866, while a number of the Powder River chiefs were at Fort Laramie negotiating yet another treaty, Colonel Henry B. Carrington led the 2d Battalion, 18th Infantry, up the Bozeman Trail. Leaving one company at Fort Reno, Carrington proceeded 67 miles to the forks of Piney Creek, near present-day Banner, Wyoming, where he established Fort Phil Kearny. In July, Carrington detached two companies under Captain Nathaniel C. Kenney to move even farther up the Bozeman Trail to build a third fort, C. F. Smith, 91 miles north of Phil Kearny, near present-day Yellowtail, Montana. Several First Nations tribes rallied around Lakota Chief Red Cloud, who would lead the war against the United States for the next two years. (Source 5).
Chief Red Cloud
Fort Laramie Treaty with Sioux Leaders and U.S. Officers Including William T. Sherman. Source warhistoryonline.com
Red Clouds forces began a campaign of low intensity skirmishes, attacks and raids along the trail, often attacking isolated wagons and outposts. The Model 1866 "Trapdoor" rifles were immediately pressed into US Infantry service, and became crucially important during Red Clouds War, notably in the 1867 Hayfield and Wagonbox fights. US infantrymen during this engagement were armed with US Model 1866 Trapdoor rifles. 700 of these rifles were brought to Fort Phil Kearny a short time before the battle by contractor J.R. Porter of the Gilmore & Proctor firm. The average US infanteer could fire approximately 15 - 20 rounds a minute, far outpacing the average rounds per minute able to be sustained by soldier with a musket.
Wagonbox Fight - Area of Fort Phil Kearny, Wyoming.
Map of the Bozeman Trail. Note the location of Fort Phil Kearny.
Fort Phil Kearny
On the morning of August 2nd, 1867, a crew of civilian woodcutters was camped in the area of Little Piney Creek, about five miles North West of Fort Phil Kearny. These civilians were escorted by US Army Captain James Powell, Lieutenant John Jenness and 51 infantry soldiers of C Company, 26th Infantry. These soldiers were crucial protecting the civilian woodcutters who were providing the much needed wood supplies to the US Army at the fort. The night before the battle, the group had established a wagon box corral using 14 wagons to protect their livestock, a typical tactic given previous engagements. Wagon trains of woodcutters had suffered constant attacks during their time at Fort Phil Kearny, though typically these engagements were smaller raids. The corral, situated near the forest and their tents, held a large ammunition supply of approximately 7,000 rounds, which would prove crucial in the coming day. These wagon boxes were approximately 10' long, 2.5' high and about 4.5' wide. These boxes would serve as the main defensive line in the coming hours from a massive force of warriors who would attempt to overrun the corral.
Illustration of the Wagon Boxes
On the morning of August 2nd, Approximately 1,000 Sioux warriors planned for something much larger then a typical raid. The US Army had divided their forces, with Capt Powell having sent 13 men to guard the woodcutters camp approximately a mile away, while another 14 soldiers were to guard the escort wagons carrying wood to and from the fort. Capt Powell, Lt Jenness and 26 enlisted men remained at the corral.
The First Attack
Overview of the Attacks
"The Native warriors set their sights on the camp's mule herd, with 200 warriors on foot trying to scatter the animals, but the mule herders kept the attackers at bay until a new wave of warriors managed to drive off the herd and set fire to the woodcutters’ camp. Simultaneously, about 500 warriors attacked the woodcutters. Then the woodcutters and their soldier guards tried to move toward the fort, bypassing the corral". (REF)
"Three soldiers and four civilian contractors were killed, but Capt Powell managed to divert the warriors attention by mounting an attack on the rear of their force from the corral, which allowed the rest of the woodcutting camp's occupants to hide in the timber or get to the fort. Within 15 minutes, an estimated 800 warriors on horseback surrounded Powell and his men at the makeshift corral". (Source 1)
The battlefield was on a flat piece of ground and had elevated positions on several sides
The US infantry punched holes in the wagon boxes to make firing ports, and used bags of grain, kegs and other equipment as protection from the warriors' bows and arrows. While some of the warriors had firearms, a majority were armed with lances, war clubs and bows and arrows. Once the attack began, the soldiers kept up a constant base of fire in the face of an overwhelmingly large number of warriors. Native warriors at this time had become accustomed to the US infantry having muzzle loading muskets, and noting that when they fired, there would be a distinct pause to reload. It is during this reload warriors often charged US positions, overwhelming and killing soldiers. In the sweltering heat and sun of August 2nd, 1867, the new Model 1866 breech loading muskets showed their prowess. Following the initial volley, the first wave of warriors charged, except instead of being met with troops clumsily fumbling with ramrods, they were met with volley after volley. This sustained fire pushed back the initial wave of warriors to a distance of over 600 yards, causing a large number of casualties.
Fort Phil Kearny
View from the walls of Fort Phil Kearny
Powell was at one end of the corral, with Jenness stationed at the other. Participants later reported that a few Indians managed to get within 5 feet of the corral, but none penetrated the barrier (Source 1).
Jenness was shot in the head and killed, as were two privates, Henry Haggerty and Thomas Boyle. Two other privates were wounded in the fight (Source 1).
A teamster, R.J. Smyth, later recalled the lieutenant's bravery during the battle. “Lt. Jenness had just cautioned me not to expose my person, and to hold my fire until I was sure of getting an Indian at each shot,” Smyth said. “He had moved a few feet from my box when he was shot through the head, I think he died instantly. He was a grand, good man, and a fearless officer. I told him to keep under cover. He stated he was compelled to expose himself in order to look after his men." (Source 1)
Several soldiers wrote firsthand accounts of the ordeal. Sgt. Samuel S. Gibson, who at 18 was the youngest soldier at the corral, recorded the most detailed and dramatic version of the event. He had been dispatched to guard duty at the woodcutters' camp and had a skirmish with several warriors before he and another soldier made it safely to the corral. (Source 1)
“The whole plain was alive with Indians shooting at us, and the tops of the boxes were ripped and literally torn to slivers by their bullets,” he wrote. “How we ever escaped with such slight loss I have never been able to understand, but we made every shot tell in return, and soon the whole plain in front of us was strewn with dead and dying Indians and ponies. It was a horrible sight!” (Source 1)
Illustration of the combat at the Wagon box fight during the morning of August 2nd, 1867
Gibson added, “The Indians were amazed at the rapidity and continuity of our fire. They did not know we had been equipped with breech-loaders and supposed that after firing the first shot they could ride us down before we could reload.” (Source 1)
Sometime between noon and 1 p.m., hundreds of warriors led by Red Cloud's nephew charged the corral on horseback, hurtling toward the wagons in a V-shaped wedge. Powell later recalled that things looked very bleak at that moment, especially because ammunition was running low and his men were exhausted from holding off the warriors for so long. (Source 1)
After warriors on horseback were initially forced to retreat from the corral area, they tried to attack on foot over the next three hours. On Sullivant's Ridge, a hill to the east, were several hundred warriors out of range who had been watching the battle “like spectators,” but it appeared to Powell that they would enter the fray. (Source 1)
Just at that moment, though, Powell said he heard the sound of a howitzer shell hit and saw a rescue party led by Maj. Benjamin F. Smith, who had 100 men with him. (Source 1)
“The shell fired was in the direction of the Indians [on the hill], but fell short, as I anticipated,” Smith noted in his report, “but [it] seemed to disconcert them as a number of mounted Indians who were riding rapidly toward my command turned and fled.” (Source 1)
The warriors who had been attacking the corral as well as the ones watching the action all retreated. (Source 1)
Smith, arriving at the corral, was shocked to find that most of the men had survived the intense encounter. He had expected them all to be dead. “It was a hard lot to look at. The day was hot and the sun was beating down on them in the wagon beds,” he wrote. “The smoke from their guns had colored their faces and they looked as though they had used burnt cork on their faces.” (Source 1)
Each survivor received a big drink of whiskey from a keg brought along on the rescue mission by the post surgeon, Dr. Samuel M. Horton. (Source 1)
The hills of Wyoming as seen from Fort Phil Kearny
An outstanding clip from the Wyoming State Parks
Overall accounts of casualties vary, with claims of only 6 Native warriors killed to over 1,000. Whatever the total casualty count was, it became clear from here on out that the breech loading rifle was the way forward, and that overwhelming firepower should be a tenant of US Military doctrine (hint: it still is...).
The US Model 1866 Trapdoor rifle holds a place in history as being a pivotal rifle in the development of not only metallic breech loading military weapons, but also in US Military doctrine. The "Trapdoor" model of rifle would soldier on for several more decades, seeing refinement in the Models 1868, 1870, 1873, 1879 and 1884 models. These rifles (and later carbines) were the quintessential US military long arm of the "Indian Wars" and saw service in every engagement, from the deserts of Texas and Arizona, through the mountains of Colorado, to the rivers and forests of Montana. While certainly having drawbacks tactically when compared to other platforms and designs, the robust, simple rifle has earned its place in history.
Great sources are essential...
Holding history in your hands and heading to the Range
In preparation for taking my US Model 1866 Rifle to the range, I loaded up approximately 50 rounds of .50-70 Government ammunition. I used Jet Bullets .512 diameter, 450 grain projectiles, Starline brass, Federal match primers, and tried both 65gr of Goex 1FG and 2FG Black Powder. I used a Ox Yoke Wonder Wad between the powder and projectile. Bullets were hand lubed with SPG lube. Loading the .50-70 Government cartridge is very straight forward, and although components aren't exactly common, they aren't impossible to find either. I use a typical Lee single stage press and a drop tube when loading black powder rifle cartridges.
Ammunition Components. Black Powder is the only way to go.
With my ammo all loaded up (in my cartridge belt of course), I took to my local range and took up a position on the 100m line. While I have fired this rifle a few times prior (note the summer and winter images below), today was cold, snowy and not ideal for shooting. The rifle has very basic sights (by todays standards), a relatively long trigger pull and is certainly not a marksman's rifle.
Rifle on the firing line
Ready to go!
Simple - but effective. The mainstay of any military weapon.
Though not designed as a competition target rifle, the 1866 was still capable of holding its own, especially after 155 years old. The rifle loaded and extracted with ease. Recoil was relatively mild, with a nice "oomph" of flame and spark that all black powder shooters have come to know and love. I did not clean or wipe before shots, as I wanted to keep things as "realistic" as possible. Given that it was -20 with the wind-chill, I decided to fire only two groups - five at 100m with the 65gr of 1FG load and five at 100m with the 65gr of 2FG load.
The unmistakable "boom" of history
405gr, .512 bullet over 65gr FG Powder.100m distance.
My best - 405gr, .512 bullet over 65gr 2FG Powder. 100m distance. More than acceptable for 155 year old rifle!
As you can see, this rifle performed exceptionally well at 100m. While I felt no appreciable difference in recoil or report between the 1FG and 2FG loads, the rifle clearly performed better with the 2FG. This makes total sense given the original loading, but I figured (safe) load experimentation doesn't hurt. The rifle typically shot about 6" high, and so I was taking a 6 o'clock hold.
Throwing flames from 155 years of history
I have shot a number of flintlock and percussion muskets over the years, and can certainly appreciate the advantage in firepower that one of these rifles in 1867 would have provided. While the mechanism is a little clumsy, the action relatively weak (by modern standards), the sights primative, the trigger pull awkward - the rifle was certainly combat effective during its day. Following the development and adaptation of other US "Trapdoor" rifles, many of these 1866 rifles were surplused, and ended up on the open market. Many of these rifles were present during the early and middle period of the "great" Buffalo Hunts, with archeological evidence further confirming the .50-70 Government cartridge was used in great numbers during the Great Sioux Wars of 1876 (and the Battle of the Little Bighorn).
"On the line"
Was my US 1866 rifle present on the morning of August 2nd, 1867, where a small group of US infantry held off a superior number of attacking Native warriors? Did my rifle see service along the Bozeman trail, fighting off bands of Cheyenne, Sioux and Lakota warriors? Was my rifle perhaps surplused off and used as a Buffalo rifle in the late 1860s and 1870s? Or did my rifle sit in a rack and get sold to a private civilian as their hunting rifle? While I will never have any idea of course, it certainly is fascinating to hold such a piece of history and wonder what tales it could tell. While these rifles may have had a relatively short service life, their impact on the Frontier, the "Indian Wars" and American history is immeasurable.
-------
Sources:
1. [url]https://www.wyohistory.org/encyclopedia/wagon-box-fight-1867
2. https://www.legendsofamerica.com/wagon-box-fight-wyoming/
3. https://www.warhistoryonline.com/history/red-clouds-war-wagon-box-fight.html
4. https://www.fortphilkearny.com/
5. https://www.legendsofamerica.com/red-clouds-war/
For a while I've been meaning to do a bit of a historical write up and range report on a very interesting set of American Military surplus rifles and carbines in my collection from the 19th Century. I personally find the Western Frontier and "Old West" period of American history fascinating, and that deep interest in history, coupled with an ever growing enjoyment of collecting and shooting antique black powder firearms has seemingly collided. I have been fortunate to have had some help locating and acquiring a few firearms over the past few years which I have been slowly sourcing ammunition components for, and now recently, begun shooting and developing black powder loads for.
When it comes to "Milsurp" firearms, most of us typically conjure up images of Mosins, Mausers, Enfields, Garands and the like, furthered by Hollywood movies, stories passed down from Veterans and more recently, computer & video games. When we think of American milsurps, most of us focus on M1911s, M1 Garands, M1 Carbines, BARs, M1903 Springfields and Thompson SMGs. While these timeless classics certainly hold crucial places in American history, I wanted to focus a bit on some lesser known American firearms from the "Indian Wars" period of the 1860s - 1890s that were pivotal in the "settling" of the West and shaping American history.
My original US Military Antiques of the "Indian Wars" (from top to bottom)
US Model 1865 Spencer Carbine. "ESA" marked.
US Model 1866 Springfield "Trapdoor". "ESA" and "HSH" marked.
US Model 1863 Sharps Carbine. "DFC" marked.
While this period of American history is often portrayed in books and movies by "Cowboys and Indians", a heavily romanticized view of saloons, whisky drinking, six shooter slingin' cowboys and the US Cavalry fighting off masses of Native Americans in heroic last stands, there is much more fascinating information to examine, explore and learn. While these events and personas certainly did exist, it is equally important to look at the political, cultural, scientific, financial and technological elements of American expansionism in The West during the "Indian Wars" that is so important to modern day America. This period of history is violent, bloody, unjust and filled with many instances broken promises, hardship, famine and murder. It is also filled with tales of adventure & heroism and makes for a very fascinating time in history.
Original Frontier Firepower!
The "Indian Wars" refers to a series of armed conflicts and campaigns between the Governments of North America and Europe against various Native American & Indigenous peoples throughout the 18th, 19th and 20th century. For the purposes of this post and these particular firearms, I will be focusing on Post Civil War US Government expansion, conflict and military action during the mid 1860s to 1870s in the American West. During this time, conflict in the Dakotas, Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, Texas, Arizona and New Mexico came to define US Military operations and weapons development.
Map showing the both the large number of conflicts as well as the vast distances of the frontier
While I make reference to the "Indian Wars", I use the term "Indian" in the context that this was the term commonly used historically for the Native American & Indigenous people of many tribes and nations involved in the fighting during this time to include the Sioux, Cheyenne, Cherokee, Apache, Arapaho and Lakota (among others).
While I am certainly not an expert or a historian by any means (and don't pretend to be), I have done my best to articulate things as accurately as possible within the reading I have done. That being said, I welcome any and all discussion, corrections, arguments and points! I am certainly interested in learning as much as possible, be it about the historical notes and references or the firearms themselves! I have taken photographs and videos from a few locations online, and have done my best to source them properly. I have taken some words from other sites, and have done my best to reference them. I don't intend to claim anyone else's work or research as my own.
With that being said...
The year is late 1865...
The United States and it's Federal military is recovering from over four years of brutal Civil War that tore apart the nation and depleted the Army, leaving the US War Department short on finances and facing ever increasingly complex set of challenges on many fronts - including logistics and administration in the face of ever increasing westward expansion via desolate, remote outposts and growing conflict with Native Americans. President Lincoln had been assassinated several months prior during the spring by Confederate sympathizer and stage actor John Wilkes Booth, with now-President Andrew Johnson at the helm. President Johnson was facing the monumental task of attempting to reunify the nation with a series of reconstruction policies, all while facing massive financial cutbacks and overwhelming challenges such implementing the abolition of slavery, the formal ending of Confederate succession, dealing with the massive loss of life and infrastructure as well as expanding and forming alliances with various First Nations peoples.
US President Johnson would serve as president from 1865-1869.
During the Civil War, the United States military grew exponentially, to a size of approximately a million men at its height, and further suffered over 360,000 killed in action. Immediately following the Civil War, In 1866 the Army Reorganization Act provided for a regular army of approximately 54,000 men, a drastic reduction in strength. In addition to this change in strength, army duties shifted from what had been large scale combat in the Eastern United States to providing protection for settlers, railroad & construction workers, gold miners and industrialists moving westward. In addition to these duties, the US Army also had the task of continuing to establish a network of remote outposts and forts in secluded locations along the western frontier. Further, enemy combatants shifted from larger scale Confederate formations to an ever shifting series of loose alliances and conflicts with numerous Native American peoples, with combat during this time typically being characterized by smaller scale, low intensity irregular raids and attacks. With this shift in situation, mission, size, mandate, deployment and doctrine, came a need for a change in weapons development, employment and use.
The United States as seen in 1866
Lessons learned from combat experience during the Civil War unquestionably proved that muzzle loading muskets were obsolete by 1865, and that metallic cartridges were the way forward. Much more reliable, rugged and practical, metallic cartridges were also able to be stored and transported easier then paper cartridges and musket caps, an important factor on the American frontier. While metallic cartridges were fielded during the Civil War in firearms such as the Spencer Rifle & Carbine, the Burnside carbine and the 1860 Henry Rifle, paper cartridges certainly had numerical superiority during the war, being used in the various 1855, 1861 & 1863 Springfield, 1853 Enfield, and 1854 Lorenz muskets (among others). Paper cartridges and loose powder is much more susceptible to moisture, freezing, tearing and being rendered useless when compared to a single metallic cartridge with self contained primer, powder and projectile. Further to these advantages, it was clear that breech loading firearms were faster to load and fire, and were also easier to clean and maintain then their muzzle loading counterparts. It was for these reasons that the United States military and the National Armory at Springfield began developing and experimenting with various breech loading rifles and carbines in the 1860s.
This letter to the Honorable E.M. Stanton, Secretary of War dated December 5th, 1864 perfectly sums up the general consensus regarding breech loading weapons over their muzzle loading counterparts:
"Sir,
The experience of the war has shown that breech loading arms are greatly superior to muzzle loaders for infantry as well as cavalry, and that measures should be immediately taken to substitute a suitable breech loading musket in place of the rifle musket which is now manufactured at the National Armory and by private contractors for this department..."
Brigadier General A.B. Dyer
Chief of Ordnance"
Typical US Model 1863 Infantry Musket. 58 Calibre. Source: capnball.eu
Beginning in the mid 1860's, several models of muzzle loading firearms were experimented with for adaptation to breech loading, many by way of a manually operated hinge, gate, lever or "trap door". Many nations and militaries sought to arm themselves with the newest metallic cartridge breech loaders, but with the massive reduction in military expenditures and strength of the US Military following the Civil War, an economical solution had to be found. The National Armory at Springfield had produced a bulk of .58 Calibre muskets used by the Federal Army during the Civil War, and were quickly put to task developing and testing various breech loading firearms, as well as developing a standardized metallic cartridge. Various Sharps and Spencer systems (among others) were tested.
Civil war era metallic breech loader - US Model 1860 Spencer Carbine. Source Guns&ammo.
In 1865, Springfield Armory Master Armorer Erskine Allin (1809-1879) had succeeded in producing the first practical metalic breech loading conversion of the standard US Model 1863 Musket. The first "Model 1865" rifles were essentially completed by taking a standard issue Model 1863 musket, cutting away a section of the barrel toward the breech area, brazing on a hinged breech assembly with a firing pin and fitting an extractor mechanism for spent casings. The hammers were also "shaved" flat to strike the rear of the firing pin. There were other minor modifications, though these "First Model Allins" used most of the original musket parts and were chambered in a .58 Rimfire cartridge. The very first of the "Trapdoor" rifles.
Master Armorer Erskine Allin
US National Armory at Springfield. Primary manufacturer of US Military weapons from 1777 to its closing in 1968
Continual development and testing with metallic cartridges further resulted in the clear determination that centre fire cartridges were advantageous, and so it was determined that a reduction in calibre to .50, and a standardized powder charge of 70gr was to be adopted as the Standard ".50-70 Government" cartridge. Testing had showed that a .45 calibre projectile was superior ballistically, though General Grant decided that the .45-70 cartridge was too long for military service (This would obviously change later). This new .50-70 Government cartridge would fire a 450gr bullet and would be the used in both the infantry issue musket conversions as well as the cavalry issue carbines. Approximately 30,000 Model 1863 Sharps Carbines would be converted for the US Government to .50-70 Government during the 1867-1868 time period. These carbines saw extensive issue in the 1860s and early 1870s along the Model 1865 Spencer carbines. With the development of this new cartridge, and taking into account trials and testing, in 1866 a refined model of "Trapdoor" rifle was developed. The US Model 1866 "Trapdoor" rifle would still use most of the original US Model 1863 musket parts, though the breech block was strengthened, simplified and adapted for the new center fire .50-70 Government cartridge. These "Second Model Allin" 1866 Models typically retained their original .58 calibre musket barrels, but had a liner installed which bored them down to .50 calibre. The 1866 Rifles also retained their original musket sights, locks and stocks. Most of these rifles were manufactured in 1867, with a total production run of approximately 52,300 rifles.
My US Model 1866 "Trapdoor"
My two .50-70 Originals! US Infantry Model 1866 Rifle & US Cavalry 1863 Sharps Conversion. Both get shot.
My particular US Model 1866 "Trapdoor" rifle is a "typical" example and maintains its original musket stock, 1864 dated lock, sights, and musket barrel with a .50 calibre liner. This rifle is in very good condition, and has a clean, shiny bore. The "Trapdoor" locks up nice and tight, and the stock is nicely marked with both the "ESA" and "HSH" cartouches (Erskine S Allin and Henry S Hill). This rifle is a very nice example of a US Military Model 1866 rifle and I consider myself very fortunate to be its caretaker.
"Trapdoor" and breech area of my 1866 Rifle.
Left side of the breech area of my 1866 Rifle.
Original musket stock - the "ESA" and "HSH" marking are faint - but there.
United States!
These rifles were generally viewed favorably, but were not without their shortcomings. Reports from the army in the field notably made reference to the ramrods/cleaning rods becoming dislodged from recoil, the rifles shooting high, heavy trigger pulls causing accuracy issues as well as soft screw heads. Having personally shot my US 1866 rifle several times now, I can attest that my ramrod likes to slowly work its way out after about 10 rounds. My rifle also shoots about 6" high at 100m and has a heavy trigger pull. In the photo's you'll also notice on of my screws is a bit worn - sure seems like this rifle exhibits traits that troops complained about!
These rifles saw considerable issue to US Army units throughout the United States, notably to units stationed along the Western Frontier. While the rifle certainly had its teething issues, the power and firepower advantage that came from having a breech loading, metallic cartridge rifle became readily apparent during "Red Clouds War" of 1866-1868. "Red Clouds War" was a series of armed conflicts and engagements between the United States Army and Lakota Sioux, Northern Cheyenne and Northern Arapaho tribes in the Wyoming and Montana Territories along the Bozeman Trail. This war would be fought among the forests, plains, mountains and rivers of the Monday and Wyoming Territories.
The Bozeman Trail
With the discovery of gold in western Montana during the early 1860s, hundreds of miners and prespectors made their way into the region. While there were a few different trails and roads linking this area of Montana to other parts of the United States, in 1863 entrepreneur John Bozemen and John Jacobs blazed a trail from the goldfields to the Platte Road west of Fort Laramie. This new trail crossed the Yellowstone and Bighorn Rivers in Montana, ran south along the east side of the Bighorn Mountains and also crossed the Tongue and Powder rivers, overall reducing the distance required by other routes by approximately 400 miles.
Montana. While beautiful - frontier life for a soldier was full of boredom, hard labour, uncertainly and discomfort.
A land of beauty & opportunity. A land of danger & turmoil.
Montana, Wyoming & Dakota Areas - 1866 Map
Soon after the Bozeman trail was established, travelers soon found themselves under attack by hostile groups of Native Americans. Under the terms of the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1851, the U.S. government had set aside the Powder River country, through which the Bozeman Trail ran, as Oglala and Brulé Sioux, Arapaho, and Cheyenne hunting land. Thus, these tribes objected to the intruders and attempted to turn back their wagons and herds. In 1865, responding to the demands of the settlers for protection, the U.S. Army sent a column under General Patrick E. Connor to the region. Connor constructed a stockade, Fort Reno, Wyoming 169 miles north of Fort Laramie at the forks of the Powder River, but his attempt to subdue the tribes failed (Source 2).
Fort Reno
In June 1866, while a number of the Powder River chiefs were at Fort Laramie negotiating yet another treaty, Colonel Henry B. Carrington led the 2d Battalion, 18th Infantry, up the Bozeman Trail. Leaving one company at Fort Reno, Carrington proceeded 67 miles to the forks of Piney Creek, near present-day Banner, Wyoming, where he established Fort Phil Kearny. In July, Carrington detached two companies under Captain Nathaniel C. Kenney to move even farther up the Bozeman Trail to build a third fort, C. F. Smith, 91 miles north of Phil Kearny, near present-day Yellowtail, Montana. Several First Nations tribes rallied around Lakota Chief Red Cloud, who would lead the war against the United States for the next two years. (Source 5).
Chief Red Cloud
Fort Laramie Treaty with Sioux Leaders and U.S. Officers Including William T. Sherman. Source warhistoryonline.com
Red Clouds forces began a campaign of low intensity skirmishes, attacks and raids along the trail, often attacking isolated wagons and outposts. The Model 1866 "Trapdoor" rifles were immediately pressed into US Infantry service, and became crucially important during Red Clouds War, notably in the 1867 Hayfield and Wagonbox fights. US infantrymen during this engagement were armed with US Model 1866 Trapdoor rifles. 700 of these rifles were brought to Fort Phil Kearny a short time before the battle by contractor J.R. Porter of the Gilmore & Proctor firm. The average US infanteer could fire approximately 15 - 20 rounds a minute, far outpacing the average rounds per minute able to be sustained by soldier with a musket.
Wagonbox Fight - Area of Fort Phil Kearny, Wyoming.
Map of the Bozeman Trail. Note the location of Fort Phil Kearny.
Fort Phil Kearny
On the morning of August 2nd, 1867, a crew of civilian woodcutters was camped in the area of Little Piney Creek, about five miles North West of Fort Phil Kearny. These civilians were escorted by US Army Captain James Powell, Lieutenant John Jenness and 51 infantry soldiers of C Company, 26th Infantry. These soldiers were crucial protecting the civilian woodcutters who were providing the much needed wood supplies to the US Army at the fort. The night before the battle, the group had established a wagon box corral using 14 wagons to protect their livestock, a typical tactic given previous engagements. Wagon trains of woodcutters had suffered constant attacks during their time at Fort Phil Kearny, though typically these engagements were smaller raids. The corral, situated near the forest and their tents, held a large ammunition supply of approximately 7,000 rounds, which would prove crucial in the coming day. These wagon boxes were approximately 10' long, 2.5' high and about 4.5' wide. These boxes would serve as the main defensive line in the coming hours from a massive force of warriors who would attempt to overrun the corral.
Illustration of the Wagon Boxes
On the morning of August 2nd, Approximately 1,000 Sioux warriors planned for something much larger then a typical raid. The US Army had divided their forces, with Capt Powell having sent 13 men to guard the woodcutters camp approximately a mile away, while another 14 soldiers were to guard the escort wagons carrying wood to and from the fort. Capt Powell, Lt Jenness and 26 enlisted men remained at the corral.
The First Attack
Overview of the Attacks
"The Native warriors set their sights on the camp's mule herd, with 200 warriors on foot trying to scatter the animals, but the mule herders kept the attackers at bay until a new wave of warriors managed to drive off the herd and set fire to the woodcutters’ camp. Simultaneously, about 500 warriors attacked the woodcutters. Then the woodcutters and their soldier guards tried to move toward the fort, bypassing the corral". (REF)
"Three soldiers and four civilian contractors were killed, but Capt Powell managed to divert the warriors attention by mounting an attack on the rear of their force from the corral, which allowed the rest of the woodcutting camp's occupants to hide in the timber or get to the fort. Within 15 minutes, an estimated 800 warriors on horseback surrounded Powell and his men at the makeshift corral". (Source 1)
The battlefield was on a flat piece of ground and had elevated positions on several sides
The US infantry punched holes in the wagon boxes to make firing ports, and used bags of grain, kegs and other equipment as protection from the warriors' bows and arrows. While some of the warriors had firearms, a majority were armed with lances, war clubs and bows and arrows. Once the attack began, the soldiers kept up a constant base of fire in the face of an overwhelmingly large number of warriors. Native warriors at this time had become accustomed to the US infantry having muzzle loading muskets, and noting that when they fired, there would be a distinct pause to reload. It is during this reload warriors often charged US positions, overwhelming and killing soldiers. In the sweltering heat and sun of August 2nd, 1867, the new Model 1866 breech loading muskets showed their prowess. Following the initial volley, the first wave of warriors charged, except instead of being met with troops clumsily fumbling with ramrods, they were met with volley after volley. This sustained fire pushed back the initial wave of warriors to a distance of over 600 yards, causing a large number of casualties.
Fort Phil Kearny
View from the walls of Fort Phil Kearny
Powell was at one end of the corral, with Jenness stationed at the other. Participants later reported that a few Indians managed to get within 5 feet of the corral, but none penetrated the barrier (Source 1).
Jenness was shot in the head and killed, as were two privates, Henry Haggerty and Thomas Boyle. Two other privates were wounded in the fight (Source 1).
A teamster, R.J. Smyth, later recalled the lieutenant's bravery during the battle. “Lt. Jenness had just cautioned me not to expose my person, and to hold my fire until I was sure of getting an Indian at each shot,” Smyth said. “He had moved a few feet from my box when he was shot through the head, I think he died instantly. He was a grand, good man, and a fearless officer. I told him to keep under cover. He stated he was compelled to expose himself in order to look after his men." (Source 1)
Several soldiers wrote firsthand accounts of the ordeal. Sgt. Samuel S. Gibson, who at 18 was the youngest soldier at the corral, recorded the most detailed and dramatic version of the event. He had been dispatched to guard duty at the woodcutters' camp and had a skirmish with several warriors before he and another soldier made it safely to the corral. (Source 1)
“The whole plain was alive with Indians shooting at us, and the tops of the boxes were ripped and literally torn to slivers by their bullets,” he wrote. “How we ever escaped with such slight loss I have never been able to understand, but we made every shot tell in return, and soon the whole plain in front of us was strewn with dead and dying Indians and ponies. It was a horrible sight!” (Source 1)
Illustration of the combat at the Wagon box fight during the morning of August 2nd, 1867
Gibson added, “The Indians were amazed at the rapidity and continuity of our fire. They did not know we had been equipped with breech-loaders and supposed that after firing the first shot they could ride us down before we could reload.” (Source 1)
Sometime between noon and 1 p.m., hundreds of warriors led by Red Cloud's nephew charged the corral on horseback, hurtling toward the wagons in a V-shaped wedge. Powell later recalled that things looked very bleak at that moment, especially because ammunition was running low and his men were exhausted from holding off the warriors for so long. (Source 1)
After warriors on horseback were initially forced to retreat from the corral area, they tried to attack on foot over the next three hours. On Sullivant's Ridge, a hill to the east, were several hundred warriors out of range who had been watching the battle “like spectators,” but it appeared to Powell that they would enter the fray. (Source 1)
Just at that moment, though, Powell said he heard the sound of a howitzer shell hit and saw a rescue party led by Maj. Benjamin F. Smith, who had 100 men with him. (Source 1)
“The shell fired was in the direction of the Indians [on the hill], but fell short, as I anticipated,” Smith noted in his report, “but [it] seemed to disconcert them as a number of mounted Indians who were riding rapidly toward my command turned and fled.” (Source 1)
The warriors who had been attacking the corral as well as the ones watching the action all retreated. (Source 1)
Smith, arriving at the corral, was shocked to find that most of the men had survived the intense encounter. He had expected them all to be dead. “It was a hard lot to look at. The day was hot and the sun was beating down on them in the wagon beds,” he wrote. “The smoke from their guns had colored their faces and they looked as though they had used burnt cork on their faces.” (Source 1)
Each survivor received a big drink of whiskey from a keg brought along on the rescue mission by the post surgeon, Dr. Samuel M. Horton. (Source 1)
The hills of Wyoming as seen from Fort Phil Kearny
Overall accounts of casualties vary, with claims of only 6 Native warriors killed to over 1,000. Whatever the total casualty count was, it became clear from here on out that the breech loading rifle was the way forward, and that overwhelming firepower should be a tenant of US Military doctrine (hint: it still is...).
The US Model 1866 Trapdoor rifle holds a place in history as being a pivotal rifle in the development of not only metallic breech loading military weapons, but also in US Military doctrine. The "Trapdoor" model of rifle would soldier on for several more decades, seeing refinement in the Models 1868, 1870, 1873, 1879 and 1884 models. These rifles (and later carbines) were the quintessential US military long arm of the "Indian Wars" and saw service in every engagement, from the deserts of Texas and Arizona, through the mountains of Colorado, to the rivers and forests of Montana. While certainly having drawbacks tactically when compared to other platforms and designs, the robust, simple rifle has earned its place in history.
Great sources are essential...
Holding history in your hands and heading to the Range
In preparation for taking my US Model 1866 Rifle to the range, I loaded up approximately 50 rounds of .50-70 Government ammunition. I used Jet Bullets .512 diameter, 450 grain projectiles, Starline brass, Federal match primers, and tried both 65gr of Goex 1FG and 2FG Black Powder. I used a Ox Yoke Wonder Wad between the powder and projectile. Bullets were hand lubed with SPG lube. Loading the .50-70 Government cartridge is very straight forward, and although components aren't exactly common, they aren't impossible to find either. I use a typical Lee single stage press and a drop tube when loading black powder rifle cartridges.
Ammunition Components. Black Powder is the only way to go.
With my ammo all loaded up (in my cartridge belt of course), I took to my local range and took up a position on the 100m line. While I have fired this rifle a few times prior (note the summer and winter images below), today was cold, snowy and not ideal for shooting. The rifle has very basic sights (by todays standards), a relatively long trigger pull and is certainly not a marksman's rifle.
Rifle on the firing line
Ready to go!
Simple - but effective. The mainstay of any military weapon.
Though not designed as a competition target rifle, the 1866 was still capable of holding its own, especially after 155 years old. The rifle loaded and extracted with ease. Recoil was relatively mild, with a nice "oomph" of flame and spark that all black powder shooters have come to know and love. I did not clean or wipe before shots, as I wanted to keep things as "realistic" as possible. Given that it was -20 with the wind-chill, I decided to fire only two groups - five at 100m with the 65gr of 1FG load and five at 100m with the 65gr of 2FG load.
The unmistakable "boom" of history
405gr, .512 bullet over 65gr FG Powder.100m distance.
My best - 405gr, .512 bullet over 65gr 2FG Powder. 100m distance. More than acceptable for 155 year old rifle!
As you can see, this rifle performed exceptionally well at 100m. While I felt no appreciable difference in recoil or report between the 1FG and 2FG loads, the rifle clearly performed better with the 2FG. This makes total sense given the original loading, but I figured (safe) load experimentation doesn't hurt. The rifle typically shot about 6" high, and so I was taking a 6 o'clock hold.
Throwing flames from 155 years of history
I have shot a number of flintlock and percussion muskets over the years, and can certainly appreciate the advantage in firepower that one of these rifles in 1867 would have provided. While the mechanism is a little clumsy, the action relatively weak (by modern standards), the sights primative, the trigger pull awkward - the rifle was certainly combat effective during its day. Following the development and adaptation of other US "Trapdoor" rifles, many of these 1866 rifles were surplused, and ended up on the open market. Many of these rifles were present during the early and middle period of the "great" Buffalo Hunts, with archeological evidence further confirming the .50-70 Government cartridge was used in great numbers during the Great Sioux Wars of 1876 (and the Battle of the Little Bighorn).
"On the line"
Was my US 1866 rifle present on the morning of August 2nd, 1867, where a small group of US infantry held off a superior number of attacking Native warriors? Did my rifle see service along the Bozeman trail, fighting off bands of Cheyenne, Sioux and Lakota warriors? Was my rifle perhaps surplused off and used as a Buffalo rifle in the late 1860s and 1870s? Or did my rifle sit in a rack and get sold to a private civilian as their hunting rifle? While I will never have any idea of course, it certainly is fascinating to hold such a piece of history and wonder what tales it could tell. While these rifles may have had a relatively short service life, their impact on the Frontier, the "Indian Wars" and American history is immeasurable.
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Sources:
1. [url]https://www.wyohistory.org/encyclopedia/wagon-box-fight-1867
2. https://www.legendsofamerica.com/wagon-box-fight-wyoming/
3. https://www.warhistoryonline.com/history/red-clouds-war-wagon-box-fight.html
4. https://www.fortphilkearny.com/
5. https://www.legendsofamerica.com/red-clouds-war/
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